Historical Chronology (1747-present)

1747-1772 -- Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali) establishes the Durrani Afghan empire in Kandahar, based on the Turco-Iranian model of governance, with loose central authority of the monarch, who provided the various tribal confederacies within the empire with funds derived mainly from conquests in India. He belonged to the Saduza'i clan of the Pashtuns.

1772-1793 -- Timur Shah Durrani inherits his father's empire, however, the main source of the imperial income in India is challenged by the British presence there, forcing Timur Shah to impose higher taxes and stricter central rule. Intertribal conflict prompts Timur Shah to move his capital from the Pashtun city of Kandahar to the ethnically heterogeneous Kabul.

1793-1800 -- Shah Zaman Durrani tries to restore the empire of his grandfather, however, the British begin diplomatic efforts to dethrone him, soliciting the help of Fatih 'Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834) of Persia.

1800-1803 (first reign) -- Shah Mahmud, Zaman's brother, comes to power with Persian support. His reign marks the effective end of the imperial nature of the Durranis.

1803-1809 (first reign) -- Shah Shuja al-Dawlah, Zaman's other brother, captures Kabul and opens direct diplomatic relations with the British.

1809-1818 (second reign) -- Shah Mahmud regains the throne with the help of the Barakza'i chief Sardar Fatih Khan. Civil war begins after Mahmud's son, prince Kamran, kills the Barakza'i chief.

1818-1838 -- Civil Wars between the Saduza'is and Barakza'is (represented by the Mohammadza'i branch), dividing the remnants of the Durrani empire into fiefdoms.
    1823 -- Kabul falls to the three of Fatih's brothers, ending the Saduza'i rule.
    1826 -- Sardar Dost Mohammad captures Kabul from his brother, Sardar Sultan Mohammad Khan.

1838-1839 (first reign) -- Amir Dost Mohammad is proclaimed amir after declaring jihad on the Sikhs who had captured Peshawar in 1834.

1839-1842 (second reign) -- Shah Shuja al-Dawlah/First Anglo-Afghan War. British forces invade Afghanistan, ousting Dost Mohammad and installing as ruler in Kabul the former Saduza'i monarch, with disastrous consequences as the puppet ruler along with the entire British army is killed by the Afghans.

1842-1863 (second reign) -- Dost Mohammad returns as amir and begins to consolidate Afghanistan into a centralized state, bringing most of what constitutes the modern Afghan state under Kabul rule; exceptions were Badakhshan and Kafiristan (modern Nuristan).

1863-1869 -- Interregnum as Dost Mohammad's sons fought for control of Kabul.

    1863-66 -- Shir Ali Khan rules in Kabul.
    1866-67 -- Mohammad Afzal Khan rules in Kabul.
    1867-68 -- Mohammad Azam Khan rules in Kabul.

1869-1879 -- Amir Shir Ali triumphs over his brothers and begins to lay down the administrative and social structure of the Afghan state.

1879-1880 -- Amir Mohammad Yaqub/Second Anglo-Afghan War. Shir Ali is forced out by British pressure; his imprisoned son, Mohammad Yaqub, is installed by the British as amir; however, after an attack on the British Embassy in Kabul, another invasion of Afghanistan is ordered.

1880-1901 -- Amir Abdul Rahman comes from exile in Russian Central Asia and assumes the amirship of Afghanistan. Creates the modern Afghan state within defined boundaries and a single central authority, using coercion, heavy taxation, and forced conscription, basing his legitimacy on Islamic concepts of justice and obedience to the ruler.

1901-1919 -- Amir Habibullah succeeds his father and has a calm rule, concentrates on education and press reform, soothes some of the scars left by his father.

1919-1929 -- Shah Amanullah comes to power after his father's assassination and declares Afghanistan's total independence from Britain, which is gained after a skirmish known as the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Institutes drastic social reforms, including the abolition of the veil for women, which causes an upheaval among conservative elements.

1929 (Jan-Oct) -- Amir Habibullah Kalakani takes over in Kabul for nine months, reversing most of Amanullah's reforms.

1929-1933 -- Mohammad Nadir Shah captures Kabul, killing Kalakani and establishing his own dynasty, suppressing the social freedoms of Amanullah's period.

1933-1973 -- Muhammad Zaher Shah is installed by his uncles as nominal ruler after Mohammad Nadir's assassination; his uncles serve as his first two prime ministers, followed by a cousin.

    1933-46 -- Mohammad Hashim Khan serves as prime minister.
    1946-53 -- Shah Mahmud Khan serves as prime minister.
    1953-63 -- Mohammad Daud Khan serves as prime minister.

After Mohammad Daud, a new era is ushered in, known as the "Decade of Democracy," along with the proclamation of a constitutional monarchy. Several prime ministers form governments; open elections are held for seats in the National Assembly; political parties are allowed to participate in national politics; and the press is freed.

1973-1978 -- President Mohammad Daud/Republic of Afghanistan. Monarchy is ended by the king's cousin and a republic is proclaimed; the press is censored. After forging close ties with the Soviet Union and leftist political parties, Mohammad Daud attempts to distance himself from those forces.

1978-1979 -- President Nur Mohammad Taraki/Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In a Soviet-backed coup d'etat, the leftist Khalq and Parcham parties come to power. Detention and execution of members of perceived and genuine opposition groups, communist slogans and adoption of a red state flag, plus rash land reforms and the coercion of rural women to attend school spawn ill feelings among population.

1979 -- Hafizullah Amin has President Taraki killed and proclaims himself premier; however, he cannot contain the opposition known as the mujahedin.

1979-1986 -- President Babrak Karmal/Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan. In December 1979, the Soviet Union sends an invasion force to Afghanistan along with Karmal to serve as president. The mujahedin, now supported by the United States and other countries, intensify their opposition and face brutal Soviet response.

1986-1992 -- President Najibullah replaces Karmal while the Soviets try to negotiate the withdrawal of their forces from Afghanistan, finally reaching an agreement and completing withdrawal in 1989, leaving about 2 million Afghans dead, the country's infrastructure devastated, and its population divided and uneducated. Najibullah, however, continues to survive while the U.S. and USSR refuse to stop arming their respective clients. Eventually, Najibullah resigns in favor of a UN-sponsored transfer of power.

1992 (April-June) -- President Sebghatullah Mujaddedi/Islamic State of Afghanistan. The UN fails to honor its commitment; various warring groups enter Kabul, fighting for territory; Mujadeddi is proclaimed interim president.

1992-1996 -- President Burhanuddin Rabbani replaces Mujaddedi as president for four months, but refuses to leave office; the war in Kabul escalates, reducing much of the capital to rubble. Kabul has control over a few provinces while ever-changing alliances take control of portions of the country. By 1995 the most prominent forces are those of General Abdul Rashid Dostum in the north, Taliban Movement in the south, Hizb-e Wahdat of Abdul Karim Khalili in the central zones, and Haji Qadir in the east.

1996-2001 -- Rise of Taliban. In September 1996, the Taliban Movement, supported mainly by Pakistan, captures Kabul and is recognized by just three countries, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. By August 1998, the Taliban has captured more than 85 percent of Afghan territory. Mulla Mohammad Omar, the self-proclaimed amir al-mu'minin (commander of the faithful) rules from Kandahar. Rabbani, still recognized as the legitimate president of the country, resides in Badakhshan. While he is still seen as the nominal leader of the anti-Taliban alliance, Ahmad Shah Mas'ud holds real power until 9 September 2001, when he is assassinated. Several United Nations peace missions and efforts by the Organization of the Islamic Conference fail to broker peace between the two warring sides. The country is transformed into a center of international terrorism and heroin production. After the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the United States and the United Kingdom launch aerial attacks against Taliban positions and terrorist camps.

2001-2004 -- Hamid Karzai/Interim Authority-Transitional Administration. The internationally backed Bonn agreement is signed in December 2001, making Hamid Karzai the leader of an Interim Authority until an Emergency Loya Jirga in June confirms his leadership of a Transitional Administration for 2 1/2 years. Karzai is to serve until a new president can be elected.

2004-present -- President Hamid Karzai. Karzai is inaugurated in December 2004 for a five-year term as the country's first-ever directly elected president after winning an outright majority in the first round of the presidential election on 9 October.

Mujahedin Parties (1979-1992):

Harakat-e Inqilab-e Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement) -- Led by a member of the traditional Islamic clergy, Mawlawi Mohammad Nabi Muhammadi, was one of the largest parties during the Jihad. Many Taliban leaders were later recruited from this party.

Harakat-e Islami Afghanistan (Islamic Movement of Afghanistan) -- Led by Sheikh M. Asef Muhseni. Formed in Kandahar. A Shi'a movement.

Hizb-e Islami (Hekmatyar Faction) (Party of Islam) -- Led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, a fanatic and radical party dedicated to promoting militant Islam. Affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, Hekmatyar formed this party in 1976. During the war against the Soviets, he was heavily favored by the U.S. and Pakistani intelligence agencies.

Hizb-e Islami (Khalis Faction) (Party of Islam) -- Led by Mawlawi M. Yonus Khalis, an Islamic scholar. Although not as ideologically militant as Hekmatyar, shared the restrictive policies of the radical groups on such issues as education and women.

Hizb-e Wahdat (Party of Unity) -- A Shi'a group that began with ethnic Hazaras based in Bamiyan in central Afghanistan. Eventually it became an umbrella party under which a number of smaller Shi'a parties united. Its leader, Abdul Ali Mazari, was executed by the Taliban in 1996. He was succeeded by Mohammad Karim Khalili, while a splinter group of the same name is under the leadership of Mohammad Akbari.

Ittehad-e Islami (Islamic Unity) -- Headed by former university Professor Abdul Rabal Rassul Sayyaf. Became closely aligned with Hekmatyar toward the end of the Soviet war. Was mainly funded by and promoted Saudi Wahhabism.

Jabha-e Nijat-e Melli (National Liberation Front) -- Led by Hazrat Sibghatullah Mujaddedi, a religious scholar and spiritual leader from Kabul. Although Mujaddedi had a small military presence, he commanded respect. In a compromise decision, he was chosen as the first interim president of Afghanistan after the fall of the communist regime in April 1992.

Jami'at-e Islami (Islamic Society) -- Headed by former professor and theologian Burhanuddin Rabbani. Comprises primarily ethnic Tajiks. Jami'at-e Islami is the oldest Afghan radical Islamist party, with strong ties to the Muslim Brotherhood. Hekmatyar also belonged to this party until 1976, when he formed his own Hizb-e Islami. Toward the end of the Soviet war, Jami'at's famous commander, Ahmad Shah Mas'ud, formed his own group called Shura-ye Nizar, which though semi-independent, still functions under the umbrella of Jamiiat.

Mahaz-e Melli-ye Islami (National Islamic Front of Afghanistan, or NIFA) -- Led by Pir Sayyed Ahmad Gailani, spiritual leader of a powerful Sufi sect. Its followers are mostly ethnic Pashtuns. It was known as being a moderate and pro-monarchical party.

Post-Jihad (1992) Warring Parties:

Junbish-e Melli-ye Islami (National Islamic Movement) -- Led by General Abdul Rashid Dostum, based in the northern city of Mazar-e Sharif. Was formed by mainly Uzbek military officers during the last year of communist rule and was instrumental in the final fall of Kabul to the mujahedin. In 1997, General Malik ousted Dostum and formed a short-lived coalition with the Taliban. Today, Malik heads his splinter Junbish-e Islami party, and has entered into a coalition with Dostum's Junbesh-i Melli.

Da Afghanistan da Talibano Islami Tahrik (The Afghan Islamic Movement of Taliban; aka the Taliban) -- Led by Mulla Mohammad Omar. Was formed by recruits from young Afghans in Pakistani refugee camps and from various mujahedin groups -- mainly that of Harakat-e Inqilab-e Islami. The group, supported militarily, politically, and economically by Pakistan, first surfaced in Kandahar in late 1994. It eventually took over the bulk of the Afghan territory, capturing Kabul in September 1996. Its initial agenda was declared to be putting an end to the corruption of the mujahedin government, restoring security, and establishing pure Islamic rule. Their policies -- including unprecedented restrictions on women, the harboring of international terrorists, and cultivation of illicit drugs -- prevented them from receiving recognition as the legitimate government of Afghanistan by the United Nations and all but three states in the world. Unofficially, the movement was long divided internally into two subgroups -- Kandahari Taliban and Kabuli Taliban -- with the latter believed to espouse a relatively less radical outlook.

Jabha-ye Muttahid-e Islami-ye Melli bara-ye Nejat-e Afghanistan (United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan; aka United Front or Northern Alliance) Officially recognized as the government of Afghanistan under Rabbani's presidency, the de facto leader of this military opposition to the Taliban was Ahmad Shah Mas'ud until his assassination by two Arab radicals posing as journalists on 9 September 2001). The coalition also included Junbesh, Hizb-e Wahdat, Sayyaf, and Haji Qadir and Isma'il Khan. Currently there is no recognized leader for the United Front.

© Prepared by Amin Tarzi. Additional material by Andy Heil. Much of this material first appeared in a slightly modified form in Edward Grazda's "Afghanistan Diary 1992-2000" published by powerHouse Books.

Source: JEMB